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Grímsvötn

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Grímsvötn
Grímsvötn and the Vatnajökull glacier, Iceland, July 1972
Highest point
Elevation1,725 m (5,659 ft)[1]
ListingList of volcanoes in Iceland
Coordinates64°25′12″N 17°19′48″W / 64.42000°N 17.33000°W / 64.42000; -17.33000
Geography
Map
Geological features near the Grímsvötn central volcano and its fissure swarm (red outlines). The fissure swarm's recent surface lava flows are shaded violet (darker if more recent, vents violet outline).
Legend
  • Other shading shows:
  •    calderas
  •   central volcanoes
  •   fissure swarms
  •   subglacial terrain above 1,100 m (3,600 ft)
  •   seismically active areas
  • Clicking on the rectangle in the image enlarges to full window and enables mouse-over with more detail.
Geology
Volcanic caldera
Last eruptionMay 2011

Grímsvötn (Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈkrimsˌvœhtn̥] ⓘ;[2] vötn = "waters", singular: vatn) is an active volcano with a (partially subglacial) fissure system located in Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland. The central volcano is completely subglacial and located under the northwestern side of the Vatnajökull ice cap. The subglacial caldera is at 64°25′N 17°20′W / 64.417°N 17.333°W / 64.417; -17.333, at an elevation of 1,725 m (5,659 ft). Beneath the caldera is the magma chamber of the Grímsvötn volcano.

Grímsvötn is a basaltic volcano which has the highest eruption frequency of all the volcanoes in Iceland. It has a southwest-northeast-trending fissure system. The massive climate-impacting Laki fissure eruption of 1783–1784 took place in a part of the same Grímsvötn-Laki volcanic system.[3] Grímsvötn was erupting at the same time as Laki during 1783, but continued to erupt until 1785. Because most of the volcanic system lies underneath Vatnajökull, most of its eruptions have been subglacial and the interaction of magma and meltwater from the ice causes phreatomagmatic explosive activity.[4] Within the Grímsvötn-Laki volcanic system is a second central volcano called Thordarhyrna (Þórðarhyrna).[5]

Jökulhlaup

[edit]

Eruptions in the caldera regularly cause glacial outbursts known as jökulhlaup.[6] Eruptions or geothermal activity, melt enough ice to fill the Grímsvötn caldera with water, and the pressure may be enough to suddenly lift the ice cap, allowing huge quantities of water to escape rapidly. Earthquakes and seismic tremor may occur.[7] Jökulhlaup can occur independent of eruptions or be followed by eruptions.[7] Jökulhlaup independent of eruptions occurred in November, December 2021 and October 2022.[7] Jökulhlaup which were followed by eruptions occurred in 1922, 1934 and 2004.[7] Consequently, the Grímsvötn caldera is monitored very carefully.

When a large eruption occurred in 1996, geologists knew well in advance that a glacial burst was imminent. It did not occur until several weeks after the eruption finished, but monitoring[8] ensured that the Icelandic ring road (Hringvegur) was closed when the burst occurred. A section of road across the Skeiðará sandur was washed away in the ensuing flood, but no one was hurt.

Eruption history between 1990 and today

[edit]

Gjálp 1996

[edit]

(See also the main article: 1996 eruption of Gjálp

The Gjálp fissure vent eruption in 1996 revealed that an interaction may exist between Bárðarbunga and Grímsvötn. A strong earthquake at Bárðarbunga, about magnitude 5, is believed to have been related to the triggering of the eruption in Gjálp.[9] On the other hand, because the magma erupted showed strong connections to the Grímsvötn Volcanic System according to petrology studies, the 1996 as well as a former eruption at Gjálp in the 1930s are thought to have taken place within Grímsvötn Volcanic system.[10][11]

1998 and 2004 eruptions

[edit]
Satellite images of the November 2004 Grímsvötn Eruption. The lower image assigns a false color (red) to the surface ice.

A week-long eruption occurred at Grímsvötn starting on 28 December 1998, but no glacial burst occurred. In November 2004, a week-long eruption occurred. Volcanic ash from the eruption fell as far away as mainland Europe and caused short-term disruption of airline traffic into Iceland, but again no glacial burst followed the eruption.

2011 eruption

[edit]

Harmonic tremors were recorded twice around Grímsvötn on 2 and 3 October 2010, possibly indicating an impending eruption.[12] At the same time, sudden inflation was measured by GPS in the volcano, indicating magma movement under the caldera. On 1 November 2010 meltwater from the Vatnajökull glacier was flowing into a lake, suggesting that an eruption of the underlying volcano could be imminent.

Satellite image from 22 May 2011 of the volcanic plume above Iceland
View of Icelandic landscape beneath the ash-cloud during the 2011 eruption
Grímsvötn in August 2011. Ash covering the surrounding snow and ice

On 21 May 2011 at 19:25 UTC, an eruption began, with 12 km (7 mi) high plumes accompanied by multiple earthquakes,[13][14][15][16] Until 25 May, the eruption scale had been larger than that of the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull.

The ash cloud from the eruption rose to 20 km (12 mi), and was so far 10 times larger than the 2004 eruption, and the strongest in Grímsvötn in the last 100 years.[17]

Satellite image from 23 May 2011 of the ash-cloud to the south of Iceland

Disruption to air travel in Iceland[18] commenced on 22 May, followed by Greenland, Scotland,[19] Norway, Svalbard[20] and a small part of Denmark on subsequent days. On 24 May the disruption spread to Northern Ireland and to airports in northern England.[18] The cancellation of 900 out of 90,000 European flights[21] in the period 23–25 May was much less widespread than the 2010 disruption after the Eyjafjallajökull eruption.

The eruption stopped at 02:40 UTC on 25 May 2011, although there was some explosive activity from the eruptive vents affecting only the area around the crater.[22][23][24]

2020 onward threats of eruption

[edit]

In June 2020, the Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) issued a warning that an eruption might take place in the coming weeks or months, following scientists reporting high levels of sulfur dioxide, which is indicative of the presence of shallow magma. IMO warned that a glacial flood as a result of melting ice could trigger an eruption.[25] No eruption occurred.

In September 2021, an increase in water outflow from under the Vatnajökull ice cap was reported. The water contains elevated levels of dissolved hydrogen sulfide, suggesting increased volcanic activity under the ice.[26] Jökulhlaup (glacial lake flooding) can occur before or after an eruption.

On 4 December 2021, a jökulhlaup occurred from Grímsvötn into the Gígjukvísl river, with an average flow of 2,600 m3/s (92,000 cu ft/s). Two days later, the Icelandic Meteorological Office increased the alert level for Grímsvötn from yellow to orange, after a series of earthquakes was detected. On 7 December, the alert level was lowered back to yellow, after seismic activity decreased and no signs of eruptive activity were detected.[27]

On 11 December 2023, a jökulhlaup followed in time,[7] a Mw 4.5 earthquake.[28]

Eruption history before 1990

[edit]

Tephra studies on soil samples from around the Vatnajökull ice-cap, show that the Grímsvötn volcanic system has high activity for Iceland, and had between 4 to 14 explosive eruptions every 100 years (mean about 7 eruptions every 100 years) between 7600 years ago and 870 AD.[29] For technical reasons only the last 10,200 years of explosive eruptions have been characterised locally,[30] and the record gets more inaccurate with time especially prior to 1598, which is first eruption timed to the day.[1] The Laki eruptions which were both effusive and explosive between June 1783 and February 1784,[31] produced the Skaftáreldahraun lava flows, which cover a large part of south-east Iceland.[3] Before this the tip of the Rauðhólar-Eldgígur fissure system was active with the production of the 4550 BCE Botnahraun lava flow which extends beyond the furtherest extent to the south of the Laki lava field.[3] The Rauðhólar-Eldgígur fissure system also formed the Núpahraun lava flows around 4000 BP[31] that extend from the Vatnajökull glacier towards the south east coast and are covered in part by the northern Laki Skaftáreldahraun lava flow.[3] There are two recent pre-historic but undated Bergvatnsárhraun lava flows just on the south-eastern edge of the Vatnajökull glacier, related to the line of the Rauðhólar-Eldgígur fissures.[3]

Eruptions Grímsvötn volcanic system last 10,000 years (unconfirmed eruptions not shown)
Standard DateDate Cal BPLake Lögurinn tephra thicknessVEIComment
2011--4[1]
2004--3[1]
1998--3[1]
1996--3[1]
1983--2[1]
1954--1[1]
193812-4[1]
193416-2[1]
193317-1[1]
1922289 cm (3.5 in)2[1],Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
191931-2[1]
191040--[1]
189753-2[1]
1891-41-2[1]
188367-2[1]
187377-4[1]
186783-1[1]
185496-2[1]
1838112-2[1]
1816134-2[1]
1783167-4[1] Laki eruption.
1774176-2[1]
1768182-2[1]
1753197-2[1]
1730220-2[1]
1725225-2[1]
1716234-2[1]
1706244-2[1]
1697253--[1]
1684266-2[1]
1681269--[1]
16652857 cm (2.8 in)-[1]Approx 280 BP eruption Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
1659291-2[1]
1638312-2[1]
1632318--[1]
1629321-2[1]
1622328--[1]
1619331-2[1]
1610340--[1]
16033472 cm (0.79 in)-Approx 345 BP eruption - Oct 1603 Lake Lögurinn core[30]
1598352-3[1]
1530±10420±10--[1]
1521429--[1]
1510440--Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
15084428 cm (3.1 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
1500450--Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
1500450--[1]
1490±10460±10--[1]
1471479--[1]
1470±10480±10--[1]
1469481--[1]
1450±10500±10--[1]
1430±10520±10--[1]
1390±10560±10--[1]
1370±10580±10--[1]
1369581--[1]
1354596--Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[30][1]
1350600--[1]
1341609-2[1]
1332618-2[1]
1310±10640±10--[1]
1290±10660±10--[1]
1270±10680±10--[1]
1230±10720±10--[1]
1190760--[1]
11627885 cm (2.0 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[30]
1090860--[1]
10509005 cm (2.0 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[30]
1010940--[1]
9779735 cm (2.0 in)-Lake Lögurinn core. Has some Veidivötn-Bárdarbunga compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned.[30]
8851065--Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[30][a]
85810929 cm (3.5 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[30][a]
85310973 cm (1.2 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[30][a]
85210985 cm (2.0 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[30][a]
85011002 cm (0.79 in)-Lake Lögurinn core. Has also Kverkfjöll, Veidivötn-Bárdarbunga compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned.[30][a]
78111692 cm (0.79 in)-Greenland, Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[32][a]
7531197--Greenland core[32]
50214489 cm (3.5 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar cores.[30]
30316475 cm (2.0 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
28016704 cm (1.6 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar, Snæfell, Svartárkort & marine cores.[30]
21617346 cm (2.4 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[30]
18317671 cm (0.39 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
18±100 BCE1968±1003 cm (1.2 in)2[1]Lake Lögurinn core. Has some Veidivötn-Bárdarbunga compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned [30]
589 BCE25397 cm (2.8 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
800 BCE27504 cm (1.6 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar, Snæfell & marine cores.[30]
834 BCE27849 cm (3.5 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar, Snæfell & marine cores.[30]
1950 BCE3900-2[1]
2406 BCE43564 cm (1.6 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[30]
2701 BCE46511 cm (0.39 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[30]
3343 BCE52939 cm (3.5 in)-Lake Lögurinn core. Has some Kverkfjöll compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned.[30]
3607 BCE55575 cm (2.0 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
3711 BCE56614 cm (1.6 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Snæfell cores.[30]
3745 BCE56957 cm (2.8 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores. Has some Veidivötn-Bárdarbunga compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned.[30]
4117 BCE60677 cm (2.8 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar, Snæfell & marine cores.[30]
4187 BCE61371 cm (0.39 in)-Lake Lögurinn core. Trace possible in a Kárahnjúkar core.[30]
4276 BCE62267 cm (2.8 in)-Lake Lögurinn. Possibly in a Kárahnjúkar core.[30]
4333 BCE62837 cm (2.8 in)-Lake Lögurinn core. Possibly in a Kárahnjúkar core.[30]
4338 BCE62882 cm (0.79 in)-Lake Lögurinn. Trace possible in a Kárahnjúkar core.[30]
4674 BCE6624--Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[30]
4738 BCE66888 cm (3.1 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[30]
4849 BCE67997 cm (2.8 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[30]
5073 BCE70236 cm (2.4 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Svartárkort cores.[30]
5758 BCE77083 cm (1.2 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[30]
5830 BCE7780--Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
5889 BCE78392 cm (0.79 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[30]
5889 BCE81761 cm (0.39 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
6692 BCE86426 cm (2.4 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
6695 BCE86459 cm (3.5 in)-Lake Lögurinn core a possibly in Svartárkort core.[30]
6716 BCE86662 cm (0.79 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
6876 BCE88262 cm (0.79 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
7108 BCE90589 cm (3.5 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
7136 BCE90868 cm (3.1 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
7162 BCE91126 cm (2.4 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
7171 BCE91216 cm (2.4 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Svartárkort cores.[30]
7180 BCE91305 cm (2.0 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Svartárkort cores[30]
7234 BCE91843 cm (1.2 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
7318 BCE92685 cm (2.0 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
7394 BCE93443 cm (1.2 in)-Has some Veidivötn-Bárdarbunga compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned. Lake Lögurinn & Snæfell cores[30]
7483 BCE94338 cm (3.1 in)-Lake Lögurinn core. Possibly in Snæfell core.[30] Tholeiite basalt G9410 tephra in Torfdalsvatn core dated at 9410 ± 340 BP.[34]
7536 BCE94864 cm (1.6 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
7577 BCE95278 cm (3.1 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
7585 BCE95356 cm (2.4 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30]
7703 BCE96532 cm (0.79 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30] Tholeiite basalt tephra G9630 in Torfdalsvatn core dated at 9630 ± 350 BP.[34] May be part of G10ka series tephra which covers a 500 year period.[b]
7826 BCE97762 cm (0.79 in)-Lake Lögurinn & Svartárkort cores[30] Tholeiite basalt tephra G9740 in Torfdalsvatn core dated at 9740 ± 320 BP.[34] May be part of G10ka series tephra which covers a 500 year period.[b]
7899 BCE9849--Lake Lögurinn & Kirkjugardur cores.[30] Tholeiite basalt tephra G9850 in Torfdalsvatn core dated at 9850 ± 300 BP.[34] May be part of G10ka series tephra which covers a 500 year period.[b]
7919 BCE98691 cm (0.39 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Svartárkort & Kirkjugardur cores.[30] May be part of G10ka series tephra which covers a 500 year period.[b]
8053 BCE100036 cm (2.4 in)-Lake Lögurinn core.[30] May be part of G10ka series tephra which covers a 500 year period.[b]
8069 BCE100195 cm (2.0 in)-Lake Lögurinn, Svartárkort & Kirkjugardur cores.[30] May be part of G10ka series tephra which covers a 500 year period.[b]
8248 BCE10198--Lake Lögurinn, Kirkjugardur cores.[30] May be part of G10ka series tephra which covers a 500 year period.[b] Tholeiite basalt tephra in at least one of seven layers in Torfdalsvatn core.[34]
8250 BCE10200-6[1]Also has some Borrobol tephra like compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned. Lake Lögurinn, Svartárkort, Litligardur & Reitsvík cores and may be the Fosen tephra identified of same age in Fosen, Norway[30] Tholeiite basalt tephra in several of seven layers in Torfdalsvatn core.[34] May be part of G10ka series tephra which covers a 500 year period.[b]

Bacteria in the subglacial lakes

[edit]

In 2004, a community of bacteria was detected in water of the Grímsvötn lake under the glacier, the first time that bacteria have been found in a subglacial lake. The lakes never freeze because of the volcanic heat. The bacteria can also survive at low concentrations of oxygen. The site is a possible analogue for life on the planet Mars, because there are also traces of volcanism and glaciers on Mars and thus the findings could help identify how to look for life on Mars.[36][37]

Geology

[edit]

There is the potential for mechanical interaction such as dyke propagation between Grímsvötn and Thordarhyrna.[38] Interactions can also occur with the nearby Bárðarbunga volcano, which is part of a separate volcanic system.[38] The volcano erupts predominantly tholeiitic basalt,[3] and a close chemical affinity exists with the other lavas of the Grímsvötn-Laki volcanic system.[39] The compositional separation from nearby systems has been studied in some detail, and is used to assign lava and tephra deposits to the volcanic system.[31][30] Some of the tephra's erupted have transpired to have mixed compositions with nearby volcanic systems and it is not known if this is due to dual eruptions or intusions crossing magma reserviors.[30] The volcanic system is part of the Eastern volcanic zone of Iceland, and is directly over the Iceland mantle plume.[40] The volcanic system has crater rows extending to the south east; the 25 km (16 mi) long Laki–Grímsvötn fissure system and the 30 km (19 mi) long Rauðhólar-Eldgígur fissure system.[39][3][5] The Rauðhólar-Eldgígur fissure system has been related by some authors to an alignment with the Thordarhyrna central volcano with the Laki–Grímsvötn more in alignment with the Grímsvötn central volcano.[31] Eruptives from Grímsvötn and Thordarhyrna are able to be geochemically distinguished between, so it is possible that the two central volcanoes are not one system.[41] Thordarhyrna has rhyolite formations which have not been found at Grímsvötn.[42]

[edit]

Studies indicate that volcanic activity in Iceland rises and falls so that the frequency and size of eruptions in and around the Vatnajökull ice cap varies with time. It is believed that the four eruptions between 1996 and 2011 could mark the beginning of an active period, during which an eruption in Grímsvötn in Vatnajökull may be expected every 2–7 years. Parallel volcanic activity in nearby Bárðarbunga is known to be associated with increased activity in Grímsvötn. Seismic activity has been increasing in the area in recent years, indicating the entry of magma.[43]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Timings published before 2017 for eruptions between around 700 to 900 are likely inaccurate but need a source to update. Accordingly where the tephra layer is in publications based on Greenland ice core studies since then, dates have been adjusted.[32] Unadjusted timings based on Gudmundsdóttir et al 2016 could be inaccurate.[30]Literature timings were adjusted after the Icelandic tree ring series was extended to 822.[33]
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 The precise relationships with the G10ka series tephra from Grímsvötn aged between 10.4 to 9.9 ka BP which includes the Faroes Saksunarvatn Ash and appears to have at least 5 and up to 7 deposits is unclear as full correlation across all the potentially relevant tephra records in for example Iceland has not yet been undertaken. It is suspected that more than 20 eruptions of Grímsvötn took place in the G10ka time period.[35] This note accordingly applies to all tephra layers potentially dated to within this age range.

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 "Grímsvötn". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 27 April 2024.
  2. ↑ "How to pronounce /grímsvötn/". youtube.com. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Guðmundsson, Magnús T.; Larsen, Guðrún (2019). "Grímsvötn Alternative name: Grímsvötn-Laki". Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  4. ↑ Jude-Eton, T. C.; Thordarson, T.; Gudmundsson, M. T.; Oddsson, B. (2012-03-08). "Dynamics, stratigraphy and proximal dispersal of supraglacial tephra during the ice-confined 2004 eruption at Grímsvötn Volcano, Iceland". Bulletin of Volcanology. 74 (5): 1057–1082. Bibcode:2012BVol...74.1057J. doi:10.1007/s00445-012-0583-3. ISSN 0258-8900. S2CID 128678427.
  5. 1 2 Guðmundsson, Magnús T.; Larsen, Guðrún (2019). "Þórðarhyrna central volcano (Grímsvötn-Laki volcanic system) e: Thordarhyrna". Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  6. ↑ Andrew, R. E. B. (2008). PhD Dissertation: Volcanotectonic Evolution and Characteristic Volcanism of the Neovolcanic Zone of Iceland (PDF) (Thesis). Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen. pp. 1–122. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-09. Retrieved 2011-05-24. : pages 38,39, Jökulhlaup figure 8.1 
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 "Flood tremor gradually increasing". 12 January 2023. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  8. ↑ Russell, Andrew J.; Gregory, Andrew R.; Large, Andrew R. G.; Fleisher, P. Jay; Harris, Timothy D. (2007). "Tunnel channel formation during the November 1996 jökulhlaup, Skeiðarárjökull, Iceland". Annals of Glaciology. 45 (1): 95–103. Bibcode:2007AnGla..45...95R. doi:10.3189/172756407782282552.
  9. ↑ Konstantinou, K.I.; Utami, I.W.; Giannopoulos, D; Sokos, E. (2019). "A reappraisal of seismicity recorded during the 1996 Gjálp eruption, Iceland, in light of the 2014–2015 Bárðarbunga–Holuhraun lateral dike intrusion". Pure and Applied Geophysics. 177 (6): 2579–2595. Bibcode:2019PApGe.177.2579K. doi:10.1007/s00024-019-02387-x.
  10. ↑ See eg.: Elín Margrét Magnúsdóttir: Gjóska úr Grímsvötnum 2011 og Bárðarbungu 2014-2015 : Ásýndar- ogkornastærðargreining. BS ritgerð. Jarðvísindadeild Háskóli Íslands (2017) (in Icelandic, abstract also in English) Retrieved 24 August 2020.
  11. ↑ See also: Anne Schöpa: Subglacial volcanism with examples from Iceland. TU Freiberg. (2008) Archived 2017-05-17 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ↑ "Possible Harmonic tremor pulse at Grímsfjall volcano | Iceland Volcano and Earthquake blog". Jonfr.com. 2010-10-02. Archived from the original on 2010-10-10. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  13. ↑ Eldgos í Grímsvötnum Archived 2011-08-03 at the National and University Library of Iceland, 24 May 2011 (in Icelandic)
  14. ↑ Njörður Helgason (14 April 2011). "Vegurinn um Skeiðarársand lokaður". mbl.is. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  15. ↑ "Iceland's most active volcano erupts – Europe". Al Jazeera English. 21 May 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  16. ↑ "Iceland volcanic eruption 'not linked to the end of the world' | IceNews – Daily News". Icenews.is. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  17. ↑ "Largest Volcanic Eruption in Grímsvötn in 100 Years". Daily News. Iceland Review Online. 22 May 2011. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  18. 1 2 Eurocontrol news
  19. ↑ Scottish flights grounded by Iceland volcanic ash cloud, BBC, 23 May 2011
  20. ↑ Iceland eruption hits Norwegian flights, The Foreigner, 23 May 2011
  21. ↑ David Learmount (26 May 2011). "European proceedures (sic) cope with new ash cloud". Flightglobal. Archived from the original on July 3, 2015. Retrieved September 28, 2015.
  22. ↑ "Volcanic Ash Advisory at 1241 on 25 May 2011". Met Office UK. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
  23. ↑ "Iceland volcano ash: German air traffic resuming". BBC News. 25 May 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
  24. ↑ "Update on volcanic activity in Grímsvötn". Iceland Met Office. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  25. ↑ "Evidences that Grímsvötn volcano is getting ready for the next eruption | News". Icelandic Meteorological office. Retrieved 2020-08-05.
  26. ↑ "Grimsvötn volcano (Iceland): subglacial meltwater flood in progress". Volcano Discovery. 3 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
  27. ↑ "IWO:Flood in Grímsvötn". 8 December 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  28. ↑ "UGS:M 4.5 - 109 km W of Höfn, Iceland". Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  29. ↑ Óladóttir, B.A.; Larsen, G.; Sigmarsson, O. (2011). "Holocene volcanic activity at Grímsvötn, Bárdarbunga and Kverkfjöll subglacial centres beneath Vatnajökull, Iceland". Bulletin of Volcanology. 73 (9): 1187–1208. Bibcode:2011BVol...73.1187O. doi:10.1007/s00445-011-0461-4.: 1187 
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Gudmundsdóttir, E.R.; Larsen, G.; Björck, S.; Ingólfsson, Ó; Striberger, J. (2016). "A new high-resolution Holocene tephra stratigraphy in eastern Iceland: Improving the Icelandic and North Atlantic tephrochronology". Quaternary Science Reviews. 150: 234–249. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.08.011.: Table 4 
  31. 1 2 3 4 Bindeman, I.; Gurenko, A.; Sigmarsson, O.; Chaussidon, M. (2008). "Oxygen isotope heterogeneity and disequilibria of olivine crystals in large volume Holocene basalts from Iceland: evidence for magmatic digestion and erosion of Pleistocene hyaloclastites". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 72 (17): 4397–4420. Bibcode:2008GeCoA..72.4397B. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2008.06.010.
  32. 1 2 3 Gabriel, I.; Plunkett, G.; Abbott, P.M.; Behrens, M.; Burke, A.; Chellman, N.; Cook, E.; Fleitmann, D.; Hörhold, M.; Hutchison, W.; McConnell, J.R. (2024). "Decadal-to-centennial increases of volcanic aerosols from Iceland challenge the concept of a Medieval Quiet Period". Communications Earth & Environment. 5 (1): 194. Bibcode:2024ComEE...5..194G. doi:10.1038/s43247-024-01350-6. hdl:10023/29795.
  33. ↑ Büntgen, U.; Eggertsson, Ó.; Wacker, L.; Sigl, M.; Ljungqvist, F.C.; Di Cosmo, N.; Plunkett; Krusic, P.J.; Newfield, T.P.; Esper, J.; Lane, C. (2017). "Multi-proxy dating of Iceland's major pre-settlement Katla eruption to 822–823 CE". Geology. 45 (9): 783–786. Bibcode:2017Geo....45..783B. doi:10.1130/G39269.1.
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Harning, D.J.; Florian, C.R.; Geirsdóttir, Á.; Thordarson, T.; Miller, G.H.; Axford, Y.; Ólafsdóttir, S. (2024). "High-resolution Holocene record from Torfdalsvatn, north Iceland, reveals natural and anthropogenic impacts on terrestrial and aquatic environments". Climate of the Past Discussions: 1–41. doi:10.5194/cp-2024-26.
  35. ↑ Óladóttir, B.A.; Thordarson, T.; Geirsdóttir, Á.; Jóhannsdóttir, G.E.; Mangerud, J. (2020). "The Saksunarvatn Ash and the G10ka series tephra. Review and current state of knowledge". Quaternary Geochronology. 56. 101041. Bibcode:2020QuGeo..5601041O. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2019.101041.: Discussion 
  36. ↑ Gaidos, E; Lanoil, B; Thorsteinsson, T; Graham, A; Skidmore, M; Han, SK; Rust, T; Popp, B (2004). "A viable microbial community in a subglacial volcanic crater lake, Iceland". Astrobiology. 4 (3): 327–44. doi:10.1089/1531107041939529. PMID 15383238.
  37. ↑ Peplow, Mark (2004). "Glacial lake hides bacteria". Nature. doi:10.1038/news040712-6.
  38. 1 2 Gudmundsson, A.; Andrew, R.E. (2007). "Mechanical interaction between active volcanoes in Iceland". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (10): L10310. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3410310G. doi:10.1029/2007GL029873.
  39. 1 2 Manning, C.J.; Thirlwall, M.F. (2014). "Isotopic evidence for interaction between Öræfajökull mantle and the Eastern Rift Zone, Iceland". Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. 167: 1–22. Bibcode:2014CoMP..167..959M. doi:10.1007/s00410-013-0959-1.: 958 
  40. ↑ Andrew, Ruth E. B.; Gudmundsson, Agust (20 November 2008). "Volcanoes as elastic inclusions: their effects on the propagation of dykes, volcanic fissures, and volcanic zones in Iceland". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. Volcanic Flows and Falls. 177 (4). Elsevier: 1045–1054. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.07.025.: 4. Mechanical interaction 
  41. ↑ Valdimarsdóttir, Iðunn Kara (June 2023). Origin, extent, and emplacement conditions of newly exposed pillow lavas and hyaloclastites in the Kverkfjöll region, Iceland. M.S. thesis (PDF) (Thesis). University of Iceland. pp. 1–120. Retrieved 31 August 2024.: 36 
  42. ↑ Carley, T.; Banik, T.J.; Sigmarsson, O.; Halldorsson, S.A.; Valley, J.W.; Zhang; Merritt, M.; Driggs, L. (2023). "A Petrologic Introduction to Þórðarhyrna (Thordarhyrna), a Subglacial Silicic Formation in the Basaltic Grímsvötn-Laki Volcanic System". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. 2023 (14). V21C-014. Bibcode:2023AGUFM.V21C01.4C.
  43. ↑ "Icelandic Met Office on 1 September 2011". Icelandic Met Office. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
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